Colin Luther Powell (/ˈkoʊlɪn/; born April 5, 1937)[1][2] is an American politician, diplomat and retired four-star general who served as the 65th United States Secretary of State from 2001 to 2005. Powell was the first African-American Secretary of State.[3] Prior to the election of Barack Obama as president in 2008, Powell and his successor, Condoleezza Rice, were the highest-ranking African Americans in the history of the federal executive branch (by virtue of the Secretary of State standing fourth in the presidential line of succession). Powell served as the 16th United States National Security Advisor from 1987 to 1989 and as the 12th Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff from 1989 to 1993.
Powell was born in New York City in 1937 and was raised in the South Bronx. His parents, Luther and Maud Powell, immigrated to the United States from Jamaica. Powell was educated in the New York City public schools, graduating from the City College of New York (CCNY), where he earned a bachelor's degree in geology. He also participated in ROTC at CCNY and received a commission as an Army second lieutenant upon graduation in June 1958. Powell was a professional soldier for 35 years, during which time he held many command and staff positions and rose to the rank of four-star general. He was Commander of the U.S. Army Forces Command in 1989.
His last assignment, from October 1989 to September 1993, was as the 12th Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, the highest military position in the Department of Defense. During this time, he oversaw 28 crises, including the invasion of Panama in 1989 and Operation Desert Storm in the Persian Gulf War against Iraq in 1990–1991. He formulated the Powell Doctrine which limits American military action unless it satisfies criteria regarding American national security interests, overwhelming force, and widespread public support.[4] He was the 65th United States Secretary of State, serving under Republican President George W. Bush. His term was highly controversial regarding his inaccurate justification for America's Iraq War in 2003. He was forced to resign after Bush was reelected in 2004.[5]
In retirement, Powell wrote his autobiography, My American Journey. He pursued a career as a public speaker, addressing audiences across the country and abroad. Prior to his appointment as Secretary of State, Powell was the chairman of America's Promise – The Alliance for Youth, a national nonprofit organization dedicated to mobilizing people from every sector of American life to build the character and competence of young people. Powell is the recipient of numerous U.S. and foreign military awards and decorations. Powell's civilian awards include the Presidential Medal of Freedom (twice), the Congressional Gold Medal, the Presidential Citizens Medal, the Secretary of State Distinguished Service Medal, and the Secretary of Energy Distinguished Service Medal. Several schools and other institutions have been named in his honor and he holds honorary degrees from universities and colleges across the country.[citation needed] In 2016, while not a candidate for that year's election, Powell received three electoral votes for the office of President of the United States.[6]
Early life and education
Powell was born on April 5, 1937,[7] in Harlem, a neighborhood in the New York City borough of Manhattan, to Jamaican immigrants, Maud Arial (née McKoy) and Luther Theophilus Powell. His parents were both of mixed African and Scottish ancestry.[8][9] Luther worked as a shipping clerk and Maud as a seamstress.[10] Powell was raised in the South Bronx and attended the now closed Morris High School, from which he graduated in 1954.
While at school, Powell worked at a local baby furniture store, where he picked up Yiddish from the Eastern European Jewish shopkeepers and some of the customers. (He once spoke to a Jewish reporter in Yiddish, much to the man's surprise.)[11] He also served as a Shabbos goy, helping Orthodox families with needed tasks on the Sabbath.[12] He received a Bachelor of Science degree in Geology from the City College of New York in 1958[13][14] and has said he was a "C average" student.[15] He later earned an MBA degree from the George Washington University in 1971,[13] after his second tour in Vietnam.
Despite his parents' pronunciation of his name as /ˈkɒlɪn/, Powell has pronounced his name /ˈkoʊlɪn/ since childhood, after the World War II flyer Colin P. Kelly Jr.[16] Public officials and radio and television reporters have used Powell's preferred pronunciation.
Military career
Powell was a professional soldier for 35 years, holding a variety of command and staff positions and rising to the rank of general.[17]
Training
While attending the City College of New York, Powell joined the Reserve Officers' Training Corps (ROTC).[18] He described the experience as one of the happiest experiences of his life. According to Powell:
Cadet Powell joined the Pershing Rifles, the ROTC fraternal organization and drill team begun by General John Pershing. Even after he had become a general, Powell kept on his desk a pen set he had won for a drill team competition.
Upon graduation, he received a commission as an Army second lieutenant.[20] After attending basic training at Fort Benning, Powell was assigned to the 48th Infantry, in West Germany, as a platoon leader.[21]
Vietnam War
In his autobiography, Powell said he is haunted by the nightmare of the Vietnam War and felt that the leadership was very ineffective.
Captain Powell served a tour in Vietnam as a South Vietnamese Army (ARVN) advisor from 1962 to 1963. While on patrol in a Viet Cong-held area, he was wounded by stepping on a punji stake.[22] The large infection made it difficult for him to walk, and caused his foot to swell for a short time, shortening his first tour.
Powell returned to Vietnam as a major in 1968, serving as assistant chief of staff of operations for the 23rd (Americal) Infantry Division. During the second tour in Vietnam he was decorated with the Soldier's Medal for bravery after he survived a helicopter crash and single-handedly rescued three others, including division commander Major General Charles M. Gettys, from the burning wreckage.[21][23]
Powell was charged with investigating a detailed letter by 11th Light Infantry Brigade soldier Tom Glen, which backed up rumored allegations of the My Lai Massacre. He wrote: "In direct refutation of this portrayal is the fact that relations between American soldiers and the Vietnamese people are excellent." Later, Powell's assessment would be described as whitewashing the news of the massacre, and questions would continue to remain undisclosed to the public. In May 2004, Powell said to television and radio host Larry King, "I was in a unit that was responsible for My Lai. I got there after My Lai happened. So, in war, these sorts of horrible things happen every now and again, but they are still to be deplored."[24]
After the Vietnam War
Powell served a White House Fellowship under President Richard Nixon from 1972 to 1973. During 1975–1976 he attended the National War College, Washington, D.C.[25]
In his autobiography, My American Journey, Powell named several officers he served under who inspired and mentored him. As a lieutenant colonel serving in South Korea, Powell was very close to General Henry "Gunfighter" Emerson. Powell said he regarded Emerson as one of the most caring officers he ever met. Emerson insisted his troops train at night to fight a possible North Korean attack, and made them repeatedly watch the television film Brian's Song to promote racial harmony. Powell always professed that what set Emerson apart was his great love of his soldiers and concern for their welfare. After a race riot occurred, in which African American soldiers almost killed a white officer, Powell was charged by Emerson to crack down on black militants; Powell's efforts led to the discharge of one soldier, and other efforts to reduce racial tensions.[21] During 1976–1977 he commanded the 2nd Brigade of the 101st Airborne Division.[10]
A "political general"
In the early 1980s, Powell served at Fort Carson, Colorado. After he left Fort Carson, Powell became senior military assistant to Secretary of Defense Caspar Weinberger, whom he assisted during the 1983 invasion of Grenada and the 1986 airstrike on Libya.
In 1986, Powell took over the command of V Corps in Frankfurt, Germany, from Robert Lewis "Sam" Wetzel. The next year, he served as United States Deputy National Security Advisor, under Frank Carlucci.[26]
Following the Iran–Contra scandal, Powell became, at the age of 49, Ronald Reagan's National Security Advisor, serving from 1987 to 1989 while retaining his Army commission as a lieutenant general.
In April 1989, after his tenure with the National Security Council, Powell was promoted to four-star general under President George H. W. Bush and briefly served as the Commander in Chief, Forces Command (FORSCOM), headquartered at Fort McPherson, Georgia, overseeing all Army, Army Reserve, and National Guard units in the Continental U.S., Alaska, Hawaii, and Puerto Rico. He became the third general since World War II to reach four-star rank without ever serving as a division commander, joining Dwight D. Eisenhower and Alexander Haig.
Later that year, President George H. W. Bush selected him as Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff.[27]
Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff
Powell's last military assignment, from October 1, 1989, to September 30, 1993, was as the 12th Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, the highest military position in the Department of Defense. At age 52, he became the youngest officer, and first Afro-Caribbean American, to serve in this position. Powell was also the first JCS Chair who received his commission through ROTC.[28]
During this time, he oversaw responses to 28 crises, including the invasion of Panama in 1989 to remove General Manuel Noriega from power and Operation Desert Storm in the 1991 Persian Gulf War. During these events, Powell earned his nickname, "the reluctant warrior." He rarely advocated military intervention as the first solution to an international crisis, and instead usually prescribed diplomacy and containment.
As a military strategist, Powell advocated an approach to military conflicts that maximizes the potential for success and minimizes casualties. A component of this approach is the use of overwhelming force, which he applied to Operation Desert Storm in 1991. His approach has been dubbed the "Powell Doctrine." Powell continued as chairman of the JCS into the Clinton presidency but as a dedicated "realist" he considered himself a bad fit for an administration largely made up of liberal internationalists.[29] He clashed with then-U.S. ambassador to the United Nations Madeleine Albright over the Bosnian crisis, as he opposed any military interventions that didn't involve US interests.[30]
Colin also regularly clashed with Secretary of Defense Leslie Aspin, whom Colin himself was hesitate when President Clinton nominate it as Secretary of Defense from the first place.[31] At some point during a lunch-meeting between General Powell and Aspin for a preparation of Operation Gothic Serpent, while Powell was presenting what was needed to be prepared for the operations, Aspin was more focused on wolfing down his salad instead of listening and paying attention to Powell.[31] The incident caused Powell to grew more irritated towards the Defense Secretary and led to his early resignation on September 30, 1993 and was succeeded temporarily by Vice Chairman of The Joint Chiefs of Staff Admiral David E. Jeremiah who took the position as Acting Chairman of The Joint Chiefs of Staff. Indeed, about a few days following Powel resignation on 3–4 October 1993 the Battle of Mogadishu as part of the Operation Gothic Serpent which aim to captured Somalia warlord Mohammad Farrah Aidid was initiated and ended in a total disaster which led to the death of 19 American servicemen and the shootdown that led to the crash of two United States Army Black Hawk Helicopter and the captured of one of its pilot by Somali militia. Many believed that the fiasco of Battle of Mogadishu was caused by Defense Secretary Les Aspin and Clinton Administration for not seriously taking Powell request for additional increase of tanks, armored vehicles and AC-130 Spectre gunships air-support for the support of Operation Gothic Serpent which ultimately could give more protection and support towards U.S. Troops later-on in the Battle of Mogadishu. The event that was depicted in 2001 movie Black Hawk Down was a major blowback towards Clinton Administration and was one of the reason that led to Aspin resignation as Secretary of Defense in 1994. Powell also disagree with Clinton Administration new "Don't ask, don't tell" policy which allow homosexuals to serve in the military.[31]
General Colin Powell took an early resignation from his tenured as Chairman of The Joint Chiefs of Staff on September 30, 1993. During his chairmanship of the JCS, there was discussion of awarding Powell a fifth star, granting him the rank of General of the Army. But even in the wake of public and Congressional pressure[32][33] to do so, Clinton-Gore presidential transition team staffers decided against it.[34][35][36]
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